Spartan Society – Year 12 Ancient History Assignment

Part 1 (a)He was believed to be the creator of the Spartan society and how it functioned. Most of the Spartans thought him as a God-like figure and worshipped him. There is no certain source or a piece of evidence about Lycurgus and archeological records contradicted his existence often. Even Spartans had no idea of what Lycurgus looked like but there were his portraits and statues as what people imagined how a wise lawgiver would look like. (b)The  Hyakinthia festival This was a festival named after Hyakinthos, a youth who was lover of the god Apollo and died when Apollo accidentally hit him with a discus.The flower of the red hyacinth was believed to have sprung from his blood. In his grief, Apollo ordained an annual festival. This festival was held at the ancient shrine of  Amyclae  (about five kilometres from Sparta). This site was the location of a huge statue of Apollo, the tomb of Hyakinthos and an open area for festival dances. The festival took place over three days in the (summer) month of July. Athenaeus, writing in the 2nd  century A. D. , has given an account of this festival, which basically revolves around mourning for Hyakinthos, and praise of Apollo: The festival had two stages: 1.The first stage involved rites of sorrow and mourning in honour of Hyakinthos. There was a ban on the wearing of wreaths and on joyful songs. Offerings were placed at the dead youth’s tomb. The eating of bread and cakes was forbidden; there was a special funeral meal, then a day of ritual grief. 2. The second stage involved rejoicing in honour of Apollo, the wearing of wreaths, the singing of joyful songs, sacrifice to Apollo, a festive meal, a procession to Amyclae, choral song and dance. The historian Hooker has interpreted the festival as a festival for the dead on one hand, combined with a thanksgiving for life on the other.The  Gymnopaediae festival This was ‘The Festival of the Unarmed Boys'. The festival was held in the Spartan  agora  (market place). It commemorated the battle of Thyrea fought against Argos c. 550 B. C. The festival featured: choral performances; the setting up of images of Apollo and Artemis â€Å"boxing† amongst boys and men. Although much has been written about the violent aspect of the festival, it has been interpreted as a ‘rite of passage'; on the way to manhood, an initiation that indicated membership or belonging to the community.The Gymnipaediae were celebrated in July, the hottest part of the year. The festival consisted of a series of athletic competitions and musical events among boys and men. Dancing and running in tough conditions proved the strength of the Spartan citizens to the onlookers. In its early context it was part of the whole warrior code to initiate the young soldier to a life of physical excellence. It was not confined to Sparta. This festival was a thank-offering to Apollo for military success. c)Religion in Sparta, like in many civilizations, had a comm itment to support the ideals of a militaristic society. The Spartan ideal of an elite military state influenced the approach to religion and the ways in which religion would be molded to suite state doctrine, therefore highlighting the importance of religion in upholding the values of Spartan society such as endurance, loyalty, obedience, conformity, and skill. Religion was also use to create social coherence, important in promoting conformity and in controlling the society under the ideals of the military state.At an individual level religion provided a way of ensuring fertility both human and natural as well as averting disaster and ensuring victory in war. Religion was important for the State and this could also be seen in the wartime practices of the Spartan Army. According to Powell, Spartans believed in military divination, following an army to war was a herd of sacrificial animals ready to appease the Gods. Consultative sacrifices were held before embarking on a military camp aign, before a battle and when stepping into the threshold of the enemy.As written by Herodotus, Cleomenes in 494 on an invasion campaign to Argo was sent troops home because he had seen bad omens at the river Erasinus. Spartans also consulted Oracles at Delphi for predictions, famously at the battle of Thermopylae Leonidas was told to give up or fight to the death against Persian troops. The Spartan reliance on divination is reflective of how religion was used for military organisation and was important in supporting the state with battle strategy and on issues of joining battles. The reliance on religion creates a sense of reassurance for warriors if they had een given a good battle prediction and also a justification for retreat with a bad omen, as seen through Cleomenes. The mythology was interwoven with every aspect of Greek life. Each city devoted itself to a particular god or group of gods, for whom the citizens often built temples of worship. They regularly honoured the gods in festivals, which high officials supervised. At festivals and other official gatherings, poets recited or sang great legends and stories. Many Greeks learned about the gods through the words of poets.Spartan mythology was different than any other city-state in the Ancient Greece. Their gods were the same as others but Spartan gods were geared with armors and weapons. This is an example of how militarised Sparta was. Even their lawgiver Lycurgus is believed to be a myth by historians. Many Spartans worshipped as a god and in order to create a perfect city-state, he could be constantly recreated to explain why things were as they were. Although the Greeks had no official church organization, they universally honoured certain holy places.Delphi, for example, was a holy site dedicated to Apollo. A temple built at Delphi contained an  oracle,  or prophet, whom brave travellers questioned about the future. A group of priests represented each of the holy sites. These priests, who al so might be community officials, interpreted the words of the gods but did not possess any special knowledge or power. In addition to prayers, the Greeks often offered sacrifices to the gods, usually of a domestic animal such as a goat. (d) The religious connection to the military can be first seen in the Greek Gods the Spartiates emphasised and worshipped.The principal Spartan Gods were Apollo, Artemis, Athena, Discouri and Zeus. Apollo, Artemis and Athena more explicitly demonstrate the militaristic nature of Sparta with the three Gods associated with victory, wisdom, and skill in battle. Even Gods that were not usually known for battle were given militaristic traits, like the statue of the Armed Aphrodite in Thornax. The worship of Apollo and Artemis and their high status reflects the military value of Spartan society in training the youth for future defence.Such devotion to Apollo and Artemis can be seen in the Sanctuary of Apollo at Amyclae where coins in the likeness of Apollo were found and at the Temple of Artemis Orthia where thousands of votive offerings were found. Rites of passage within Spartan society were also carried out at the Artemis Orthia and can be likened to a vigorous military test of endurance with religious overtones. Young boys endured harsh whippings whilst trying grabbing stringed cheeses off the shrine. Those who could withstand the punishment were given honour and moved onto another stage in their military training.Religion in this case was used to sort out those with better warrior potential. Another function of religion in Spartan society was to train the hoplites. Hoplites were taught religiously devotional dances and songs, but the worship taught in the barracks also had military purpose. The song and dance helped with coordinating war movement, as the musical devotions not only praised the Gods but taught ideas of rhythm that was used in coordinating Phalanx in battle and the ability to move in a manner that was in harmony wi th the other warriors.Other examples of religion being a form of endurance training and test can be seen in the Spartan festivals. In the Carneia, the participants had to live in barracks as though on campaign and were made to run and chase a figure to train, test and celebrate athletic ability. The festival was associated with military success and the state used this festival as a way of glorifying past victories, therefore promoting the successes of the military state.According to Hooker ‘The Principle aim of the Gymnipaediae [another festival] was the habituation of the Spartan manhood to arduous activity’. The festival consisted of athletic competitions, musical events and dancing as displays of strength and endurance. This gave the state the opportunity to train hoplites, and separate the strong from the weak The role of religion was to support the military organisation and was vital to a state, which valued an elite defence force and celebrated skill in battle.As shown above religion was used a form of preparation, training assurance and guide in military situations. It was believed in Sparta that â€Å"a king by virtue of his divine descent should perform all the public sacrifices on the city’s behalf† [Xenophon]. The Kings acted as a priest towards the Gods. Aristotle, â€Å"Dealings with the Gods are assigned to the kings† Ritual responsibility was associated with political power giving kings special authority in religious interpretation or jurisdiction.The kings through public sacrifices first received the divine messages of Gods and Kings could also consult the oracles as they wished. As divination was passed through the kings to the rest of society, the Kings had the power to make the people to bow to the ‘Gods’ will. Religious authority equates to political power an example of such power was when King Cleomenes refused to go into battle but got off trial by saying that the omens were bad so he could n ot fight. If a Spartan King had reasonable religious excuse he could be forgiven for losing battles and refusing battles.Such religious connection was important in gaining, loyalty and obedience in the political arena, the divine status of the Kings was sign of military elitism. Spartan society according to Xenophon depended on the king and was loyal to the King, even believing that if an untitled person occupied the royal seat military disaster and famine would ensue. Spartan society valued conformity, coherence and believed in strong social controls, which religion then reinforced.Sparta’s social organisation was formed to encourage a sense of community and kinship, which in turn intruded on private religious practice. The Spartiate was required to share sacrificial meat with his mess-companions. Religion was interpreted to support the system of shared messes. Other ideals or Social cohesion can be seen in the Spartan religious festivals. In this festival people would commu nally mourn the dead and have a thanksgiving to life, it was to religiously as a community reaffirm the need for a close society.The festival of Carneia also emphasised a communal time of celebration, which honoured heroism and past successes in battles. During this time the Spartans were not allowed to travel to wars or battles, the Carneia being the reason they were late to fight in the Marathon 490BC and the lesser numbers at Thermopylae. Spartans had special departments, which were in charge of dealing with the oracles from Delphi and keeping records of signs from God. The power to consult the Gods however was exclusively among the authoritative forces of the state just as power itself was.Even Ephors had divination powers and all political classes of Sparta had religious duties to perform. It is evident that religion in Sparta functioned as political organisation; religion was used to demonstrate prestige, power and authority which were vital to society that honoured divinity a nd, religion also assisted in creating a way for the governing forces to manipulate the wider society with claims of celestially ordained political decisions. The political connection to religion was a way of promoting the Spartan ideal of an elite warrior society.Part 2 (a) 1- Leonidas (Famous for the Battle of Thermopylae and the Persian Wars. ) 2- Menelaus (Famous for the Trojan Wars and the husband of the Helen of Sparta, later became known as the Helen of Troy. ) (b) According to Plutarch, the council originated when Lycurgus attempted to reduce royal power. More than likely, Gerousia originated as a result of a conflict between the kings and nobles during the first Messenian War. There were 28 members and the two kings in the Gerousia.Membership was restricted to Spartans over 60 years of age that were no longer liable for military service. Thus it was a body of elders who held their office for life. The Assembly elected members by acclamation and although any Spartiate was el igible in practice members probably belonged to highly respected noble families. Aristotle mentions â€Å" the best families†, Plutarch says that they have to be† the best and most deserving. † and the selection was by acclamation (shouting and clapping).The Gerousia was a Probletic body and this meant that they prepared and deliberated on bills to be presented to the Assembly for voting and if the vote was not approved by the Gerousia, it could simply ignore it by adjourning the bill would not be passed. The Gerousia, Kings and Ephors acted as a court of justice and they tried cases of murder and treason and imposed penalties ranging from death to banishment and fines even the prosecution of a king would come before the Gerousia and the 5 Ephors.All these factors ensued that men of conservative opinion had the best chance of getting into the council, staying there and replacing themselves with people of the same outlook. â€Å"It would take a brave and confident king to pursue a policy that did not command the support of the majority of the Gerousia, knowing that in the event of failure, he was likely to be prosecuted upon his return. † T. J Buckley stated in his book â€Å"Aspects of Greek History† to exemplify the power of the Gerousia. (c) The Ephorate was the fourth major institution in the Spartan constitution.Five Ephors were elected each year from the whole citizen body and by the fifth century, they were constitutionally the most powerful public officials. They were in charge of the day-today business; and were also main executive body of state, implementing the decisions of the Assembly, at which they presided. They were also in charge of private lawsuits, which they judged sitting separately. They were combined with the Gerousia in the trial of a king. They supervised the other public officials, having the power to suspend, imprison and even bring capital charges against them.One of their most important responsibilit ies was the supervision of the â€Å"agoge†, the long and tough system of state education that was essential for the high standards of the Spartan army. In the field of foreign affairs, they would receive foreign ambassadors to ascertain their business before presenting them to the Assembly. In time of war, it was their responsibility to organise the call-up of the army, deciding the precise size of the army that was needed for the coming campaign and may even have possessed the power to give orders to commanders (except for the king) in the battlefield.When king set out an expedition with the army, he was accompanied by two of the Ephors who acted as overseers. Aristotle saw the Ephors as the most powerful of the four key institutions of state but also the most corrupt. However, Ephors had disadvantages as well. For example, Ephors did not have a continuous power in the state as they were only elected for a year and could not be re-elected ever again. This caused differences of opinion over policy between successive boards of Ephors, but also between individual members of the same board.There was often disagreement, even personal animosity, between the kings and it is likely that each king would have his supporters among the Ephors. However, Ephors, for all their constitutional powers, only held office for one year and then returned to political obscurity, whereas the prestige of the king was long-standing. Some of their other functions were: * They had the right to declare war on Helots. * They could fine people in the spot for being lazy. * They were the only magistrates who could conduct a civil trial. * They had the absolute power over all the magistrates. They controlled Krypteia and state finances. (d) Spartan government contained elements of monarchy, oligarchy and democracy and this was described as a mixed constitution. Spartan government was consisted of 2 kings and this dual kingship maybe was to prevent one king becoming too powerful. The S partan Kings had ranges of powers and responsibilities. Some of them were; they were the supreme commanders of the army, were the chief priests and decided on the marriages of orphaned heiresses. Spartan kings were the supreme commanders in the battlefield.However, the policy stated that only one king was suppose to lead the army to prevent any differences of opinion about the strategies and tactics during the battle while the other remained at home. This dual kingship ensured that each could keep an eye on the other. The leading king was usually accompanied by 2 Ephors and they kept a close supervision of the king’s leadership and the Kings were blamed if the campaign had failed and severely punished. The king that leads the army had the absolute power in the battlefield and picked bodyguards were to accompany the king.Aside from the kings’ responsibilities for the military, they were also the chiefs of priests. It was believed that Spartan kings were the priests of Z eus and they were to offer solemn sacrifices to Zeus requiring a favourable omen to proceed. Those sacrifices were performed on the frontier and the fire from these sacrifices carried with them throughout the entire campaign. Kings were also expected of to be responsible for the oracles of Delphi. It was believed in Sparta that â€Å"a king by virtue of his divine descent should perform all the public sacrifices on the city’s behalf† [Xenophon].The Kings acted as a priest towards the Gods. Aristotle, â€Å"Dealings with the Gods are assigned to the kings† Ritual responsibility was associated with political power giving kings special authority in religious interpretation or jurisdiction. The kings through public sacrifices first received the divine messages of Gods and Kings could also consult the oracles as they wished. As divination was passed through the kings to the rest of society, the Kings had the power to make the people to bow to the ‘Gods’ will. Source B is an excavation of a portrait in Acropolis area of Sparta in 1925.It is believed that the statue was a portrait of Leonidas. By the look of the statue, it is a typical Spartan man with a helmet, however it does not necessarily indicate that it is Leonidas or even a king. Though in the Spartan religion, Gods were geared up with weapons and armors. This is evident of even if it was a statue of Leonidas, it illustrates what sort of people kings were to the Spartan people. Spartans assumed the kings were descended from Heracles and they are the best kinds of semi-humans, this might be the reason why the king was wearing a helmet, if it really was a statue of Leonidas.

Micro and Macro - What Happened to Price, Quality and Choice in the UK Essay

Micro and Macro - What Happened to Price, Quality and Choice in the UK Spectacles Market after Deregulation - Essay Example Deregulation: There were number of regulations and deregulations that happened in the United Kingdom in the market for spectacles. In the country, more than 70 percent of the total market for spectacles is concentrated among the four big sellers or producers. In the United Kingdom, those who produce and sell spectacles and/or contact lenses are called Opticians (Davies et al., 2004, p.4). These deregulations started in the 1900s and happened in 1948, 1958, in early part of 1960s or 1970s and in 1979. Various changes have been made during implementation of these deregulations in the country. For instance, in 1900s the demand of the Opticians regarding legal recognition of status of these opticians has been met. In 1948, provision of spectacles has been incorporated in the NHS. In 1958, â€Å"The Opticians Act established a legal monopoly for sight tests and the dispensing of spectacles, and prohibited most forms of advertising†. In 1960s and 1970s, trade restrictions have been removed by the Restrictive Practices Legislation Act in many industries across the country along with this spectacle industry. During this time this removal of restriction raised the question that whether professional service industries will be allowed to enjoy these facilities or not. The most important deregulation occurred in the 1970s when The Monopolies Commission (MC) opined after investigating the Restrictive Practices in mainly in professional service industries that advertising will be prohibited in the market for spectacles. During this time, the Monopolies Commission also concluded that this reduction in advertising of spectacles will increase the prices of spectacles and will increase the level of competition among firms in the market for these products by encouraging new entrants to enter into the industry (Advertising Association (Great Britain), 2002, pp.512-517). Finally, in the 1976 and in 1979, the final deregulations were set in the market for spectacles in the co untry. During these times reports of two Price Commissions (PCs) revealed that there exists lack of competition in the market for spectacles in the country and suggested that all restrictions on advertising of spectacles have to be removed. These Price Commissions also suggested that provisions for ‘sight tests and prescriptions from the retailing of spectacles’ have to be separated in the market for spectacles in the country. In 1982, further investigation by the comprehensive Office of Fair Trading (OFT) came up with the suggestion that unregistered retailers are needed to be encouraged to enter into the market and thus to help to reduce the price level. The OFT also suggested to remove restrictions on advertising for encouraging new entry, stimulating innovation in the product and also for increasing the level of choice of consumers (Davies et al., 2004, p.9). Effects of deregulation in Price, quantity and consumers’ choice: These deregulations affect prices, quantities as well as choices of consumers of spectacles in the UK market for this product. With the introduction of the deregulation in the market for spectacles new entrants entered into the market. With the help of this new entry, competition in the market was increased and hence, companies which were selling spectacles

Micro Economic Principles Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Micro Economic Principles - Assignment Example Therefore, according to Adam Smith, absolute cost difference provides the basis for international trade. (In this example labour hour is taken to be the only resource of production.) David Ricardo had later extended the above said idea by pointing out that it is comparative advantage and not absolute advantage that forms the basis of international trade. COUNTRIES CLOTHING (labour hours per unit) FOOD (labour hour per unit) RELATIVE COSTS (C/F) RELATIVE COSTS (F/C) U.S. 8 hours/unit 10 hours/unit 0.8 hours/unit 1.25 hours/unit INDIA 10 hours/unit 15 hours/unit 0.67 hours/unit 1.5 hours/unit Here, it can be seen that India has an inferior productivity compared to U.S. in both the goods. In the absence of trade both the nations will have to produce both the goods in order to meet the local demands. But, in the presence of trade, India should produce only clothing as it has a lower opportunity cost. Again, U.S. should specialize in food because here food has a lower opportunity cost. Op portunity cost is the cost incurred when a choice is made, in terms of the next best available option. In the above stated example, India by producing 1 unit of Clothing is losing out on 0.67 units of food but if India were to produce food, then by producing 1 unit of food, India would have lost out on 1.5 units of clothing. Therefore, a country should specialize in a good that has a lower opportunity cost. Considering 100 hours of labour, the figure below shows the gains from trade: For U.S., For India, Production possibility frontier or the production possibility curve is a curve representing the tradeoff between two commodities given the resources is efficiently utilized. The PPC shows the maximum amount of one commodity that can be obtained given fixed amount of second commodity. Terms of trade is (price of exports)/ (price of imports). It is the quantity imports which can be purchased using a certain fixed amount of exports. Trade line is the line representing the terms of trad e. Gains from trade are the gains that result from specialization and trade arrangements between two countries. In this example, both U.S. and India are gaining from this arrangement. The price of food post trade will be between 1.25-1.50 and the price for clothing will be between 0.67-0.80. This proves that trade will be beneficial for both the countries. (Pugel, n.d.; Krugman, 2007) Answer 2. a) Given, MPC= 10+10Q P= 70 – 5Q The private market equilibrium will have the MPC = P or, 10+ 10Q = 70 -5Q or, 15Q= 60 therefore, Q’ = 4 substituting the value of Q in the demand equation we get, P = 70 – 5*(4) or, P’ = 50. b) Given, MSC= 10 + 12Q P= 70 -5Q The social market equilibrium will have the MSC = P or, 10 + 12Q = 70 – 5Q or, 17Q = 60 therefore Q*= 3.53 (approx) [socially optimum Q] substituting the value of Q in the demand equation we get, P= 70 -5*(3.53) or, P*= 52.35 [socially optimum P] (Varian, 2010) The equilibrium in (a) is not optimal becaus e in case of negative externalities, marginal social cost > marginal private cost. The diagram above shows that for a profit maximizing producer, for a given cost, the profit maximizing output is Q’ which is greater than the socially optimum output Q*. By producing at Q’, the producer is causing an externality worth AB which the producer is not treating as a cost. (Varian, 2010) The equilibrium in (b) is optimal because here the cost of externality is also

Assume that Canadian Tire is opening up a store in Ghana Essay

Assume that Canadian Tire is opening up a store in Ghana - Essay Example It was dominated by two colonial powers, which are France and Great Britain. In time, Britain was able to dominate both the political and cultural forces in Canada. Two significant communities are distinguished by language, culture, religion and politics and they live separately from each other since they have divergent views on the history of Canada as a nation. In comparison to Ghana, Canada has two distinctive characteristics of everyday consumptions. Canadians are big eaters where meat tends to be the dominating portion of each meal. They have three regular meals in a day where breakfast is the largest and most important meal of the rural people. Canadians take lunch at midday, and the urban people take a snack but it remains an important meal to the rural people. Dinner is the final formal meal of the day, which is taken by residential group as a whole, and it can be extended to nonfamily members. Ghana’s main diet is made up of starchy staples accompanied with soup or stew. Forest crops such as cassava and tropical yams are mostly consumed in the south (Kaminski, 2012). Corn and rice are most important among the Ga community though their main food is fufu combined with cassava. Soup ingredients in many communities include common vegetables accompanied by animal proteins, especially fish. In addition, palm nuts and peanut crops a re the favorite among different communities in Ghana. Indigenous foods are eaten at all social functions even by the western people. It is rare to find restaurants outside urban business districts though most local bars offer various foods to workers and bachelors. Ghana’s economy mostly depends on primary products such as cocoa, gold and timber. International trade contributes to one-third of the GDP while 70 % of export income comes from the latter three major commodities. The domestic economy is mainly involved with primary agriculture

Is the green house effect operating in Earth's atmosphere helpful or Essay

Is the green house effect operating in Earth's atmosphere helpful or harmful Give examples. What are the consequences of an enhanced greenhouse effect - Essay Example But excessive greenhouse effects, induced by human activities such as burning of fossil fuels, emission CFCs, etc are harmful for the atmosphere. Scientists note that during the past 200 years the average global has increased about .40C to .80C (in Fahrenheit Scale about .70 to 1.40). Experts also estimate that if this rate of increase in the temperature remains uninterrupted, the average temperature is supposed to rise up to 10.4 degrees F by 2100. The increase in the atmospheric temperature is mostly a response to a process called greenhouse effect that â€Å"is a natural phenomenon†¦.whereby certain gasses in the atmosphere keep the earth’s temperature significantly higher than it would otherwise be, making it suitable for life† (Dispensa & Brule 87). The gasses prevent the magnified heat radiation to return to the space and preserve it as heat in the environment. Climatologists suggest that global warming is caused mainly by human activities that contribute to the increase in the green-house gas in the atmosphere. Natural causes such as â€Å"sunspots and natural variation of temperature change by the evolution of earth† (Dispensa & Brule 87) may increase the temperature of earth. Though some natural causes are found responsible for the emission of greenhouse gasses, environment also has its own process to absorb them. But the emission of these gasses caused by human activities is so excessive that natural absorption process cannot consume all of the produced gasses. In this regard, Dispensa and Brule (2003) notes, â€Å"The IPCC†¦uses the term climate change to refer exclusively to change in the climate brought about by human activities.† (p.87) Studies show that the occurring of â€Å"killer heat-waves† (Houghton 188) is more frequent than ever. The August of 2003 was the hottest summer in the European continent in 500 years killing almost 27000 people. The rise in the global atmospheric temperature is

Ethical Concerns with Research As Member of the Institutional Review Essay

Ethical Concerns with Research As Member of the Institutional Review Board - Human Subjects Committee - Essay Example This is essential as it enables them to make an informed consent about their participation. The element of collaboration which leads to accountability comes into play since a stakeholders meeting has to be organized for a briefing. In this case, since it was aerial spraying of toxic substances over the city, schools and neighborhoods, it means that the locals were not informed whatsoever about the intention of the study, its importance/benefits and risks involved. This also means that the element of honesty was not applied which translates to subjective analysis. Ethics in research further advocates for non-biasness, integrity and openness. In this case, this is not so since secret spraying of the community is evident. Openness and integrity means that justice for the participants is a priority. Another very key aspect in ethics is confidentiality assurance. Participants need to be assured of the confidentiality of the findings and that only findings across a group of participants sh ould be made public. Here is a case where even the participants have not been involved and are not assured of the confidential handling of the findings. Confidentiality in research study guarantees the participants of the researcher’s social responsibilities.

Corporal Punishment Essay Example for Free

Corporal Punishment Essay For hundreds of years, it has been customary for a child to receive a spank or slap as a form of discipline, one that parents of all cultures have used. Corporal punishment of a child by a parent or teacher has been legal in Canada since 1892, though 51% of Canadians believe that the use of corporal punishment does not reflect the attitude of Canada’s majority (Barnett). In recent years, corporal punishment has had more investigation, showing that, â€Å"corporal punishment by it’s nature can escalate into physical maltreatment† (Gershoff and Larzelere). Child abuse can be defined as â€Å"Physical, sexual, or emotional ill treatment or neglect of a child especially by those responsible for its welfare† (dictionary.com). Child abuse researchers suggest that physical punishment increases a child’s chance of developing a mental illness, incites antisocial behaviour, and stunts intellectual growth. The psychological effects of corporal punishment directly influence to a child’s mental and emotional stability. Corporal punishment is permanently damaging to a child’s development, and should be considered child abuse. Corporal punishment increases a child’s chance of developing a debilitating mental illness, specifically those caused by internalising problems, such as depression and anxiety (Smith). By using Ivan Pavlov’s theory of Learned Reflexology, it can be deduced that the high anxiety levels of children who have been routinely punished by a physical means is caused by the expectation of being stricken. It was â€Å"found that the stress of corporal punishment shows up as an increase in post-traumatic stress symptoms such as being fearful that terrible things are about to happen and being easily startled†(ScienceDaily). Physical punishment produces a large amount of stress and feelings of hopelessness in a child, leading many adults who were corporally punished in childhood to develop anxiety-related mental illnesses. â€Å"According to Strauss (1999), mental health problems are associated with physical punishment due to their being an outcome of the suppression of childhood anger associated with being hit by adults who children depend on for love and nurturance†(Smith). The main role of a guardian in a young child’s life is to protect and provide for the youth and, through corporal punishment, the child-parent relationship is damaged, producing children with antisocial tendencies. By using corporal punishment as a means of discipline, a child learns to distrust parents or other guardians, resulting in antisocial behaviour. When an adult the child trusts implements corporal punishment as a means of discipline, feelings of hostility and betrayal develop. This hostility is a result of the duplicity of a parent’s role to protect the child, causing many children to feel as though their parents and others dislike them. Said an adult who had been physically punished for delinquent behaviour as a child, â€Å"My parents were very strict†¦I was basically very good and I was hit frequently†¦It made me go out and do the same thing again, what I’d been smacked for. The message I got from them when they hit me was not ‘what you’re doing is bad, don’t do it again’. The message I got was ‘we don’t love you’.†(Smith). When rule-enforcing figures disappear, delinquent behaviour emerges, suggesting, â€Å"that parental corporal punishment erodes the parent–child relationship and in turn decreases children’s motivation to internalize parents’ values and those of the society, which in turn results in low self-control (Hirschi, 1969)† (Gershoff). Corporal punishment does not stimulate reasoning skills in a child, resulting in low-self control, as mentioned, and thus a shorter span of cognitive ability. Intellectual development begins when children are very young, and by using corporal punishment as a means of instruction, a child’s intellectual development is permanently damaged. A child that is spanked in the first grade is proven to score 5 IQ points lower than a child that was not spanked at all (Talawar, Carlson, and et al). Studies show that â€Å"[c]hildren in a school that uses corporal punishment performed significantly worse in tasks involving â€Å"executive functioning† – psychological processes such as planning, abstract thinking, and delaying gratification – than those in a school relying on milder disciplinary measures [†¦]† (Talawar, Carlson, and et al ). Executive functioning tasks require self-control, a skill that children who have been disciplined physically, as opposed to with reasoning and explanation, do not have. â€Å"Thus, poorer cognitive outcomes may result if parents who physically punish their children make less use of inductive methods of discipline, such as explanation and reasoning- procedures that are likely to enhance cognitive growth† (Smith). By contemplating the effect of an action and the whether or not the action is appropriate, children exercise executive functioning processes, which will give a child the skills to contemplate problems of academic or real-world nature. Corporal punishment has a permanent, negative effect on a child’s future mental stability, sociability, and intellectual potential. The Canadian Human Rights Act says that, â€Å"the prohibited grounds of discrimination are race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, age, sex, sexual orientation, marital status, family status, disability and conviction for which a pardon has been granted†( RSC 1985, c H-6). The continuation of corporal punishment in modern society, â€Å"encourages a view of children as less worthy of protection and respect for their bodily integrity based on outdated notions of their inferior personhood† (Barnett). 51% of Canadians do not feel that the physical punishment of a child is right or just (Barnett), and believe that it should not be used as a parenting technique. Corporal punishment’s damaging effect on a child’s psychological well-being, both in child and adulthood, proves that it is a form of abuse. There are alternative parenting techniques that are proven to produce better results, and encourage the progress of a child’s development. â€Å"Children are one third of our population and all of our future,†(quotegarden.com). Should the future not have the right to the same amount of protection as their predecessors? Works Cited: Barnett, Laura. Parlaiment of Canada. Law and Government Division. The Spanking Law: Section 43 of the Criminal Code. Ottawa: , 2008. Web. . â€Å"Children who are Spanked Have Lower IQs, New Research Finds. ScienceDaily. 24 Sep 2009: n. page. Web. 23 Jan. 2012. . Gershoff, Elizabeth. Corporal Punishment by Parents and Associated Child Behaviors and Experiences: A Meta-Analytic and Theoretical Review. endcorporalpunishment.org. American Psychological Association, 2002. Web. 21 Jan 2012. . Gershoff, Elizabeth, and Robert Larzelere. Is Corporal Punishment an Effective Means of Discipline?. American Psychological Association 26 06 2002. n.pag. American Psychological Association. Web. 23 Jan 2012.